The Impact of Coal-Powered Electrical Plants and Coal Ash Impoundments on the Health of Residential Communities

References

1. ↵
   1. U.S. Energy Information Administration

   Independent Statistics & Analysis: North Carolina State Profile and Energy Estimates, Profile Analysis. https://www.eia.gov/state/analysis.php?sid=NC. Updated August 17, 2017. Accessed June 18, 2018.
2. ↵
   Southern Alliance for Clean Energy website. http://www.cleanenergy.org. Accessed on June 18, 2018.
3. ↵
   1. Rowe CL,
   2. Hopkins WA,
   3. Congdon JD

   Ecotoxicological implications of aquatic disposal of coal combustion residues in the United States: a review. Environ Monit Assess. 2002;80(3):207-276.

   OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
4. ↵
   1. Buchanan S,
   2. Burt E,
   3. Orris P

   Beyond black lung: scientific evidence of health effects from coal use in electricity generation. J Public Health Policy. 2014;35(3):266-277.

   OpenUrl
5. ↵
   1. Linak WP,
   2. Yoo J-I,
   3. Wasson SJ, et al.

   Ultrafine ash aerosols from coal combustion: Characterization and health effects. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute. 2007;31(2):1929-1937.

   OpenUrl
6. ↵
   1. Wilson WE,
   2. Suh HH

   Fine particles and coarse particles: concentration relationships relevant to epidemiologic studies. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 1997;47(12):1238-1249.

   OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
7. ↵
   1. Yao Z,
   2. Ji X,
   3. Sarker P, et al.

   A comprehensive review on the applications of coal fly ash. Earth-Science Reviews. 2015;141:105-121.

   OpenUrl
8. ↵
   1. US Environmental Protection Agency

   Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter (Final Report, Dec 2009). EPA website. https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/risk/recordisplay.cfm?deid=216546. Published December 2009. Accessed June 18, 2018.
9. ↵
   1. Yudovich YE,
   2. Ketris MP

   Arsenic in coal: a review. International Journal of Coal Geology. 2005;61(3):141-196.

   OpenUrlCrossRefGeoRefWeb of Science
10. ↵
    1. Pope CA,
    2. Burnett RT,
    3. Thurston GD, et al.

    Cardiovascular mortality and long-term exposure to particulate air pollution epidemiological evidence of general pathophysiological pathways of disease. Circulation. 2004;109(1):71-77.

    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
11. ↵
    1. Levy JI,
    2. Baxter LK,
    3. Schwartz J

    Uncertainty and variability in health-related damages from coal-fired power plants in the United States. Risk Anal. 2009;29(7):1000-1014.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
12. ↵
    1. US Environmental Protection Agency

    Regulatory Impact Analysis for the Final Clean Air Interstate Rule. Washington, DC: Office of Air and Radiation Report; 2005. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-09/documents/finaltech08.pdf. Accessed June 18, 2018.
13. ↵
    1. Silva LF,
    2. da Boit KM

    Nanominerals and nanoparticles in feed coal and bottom ash: implications for human health effects. Environ Monit Assess. 2011;174(1-4):187-197.

    OpenUrlPubMed
14. ↵
    1. US Environmental Protection Agency

    Integrated Science Assessment for Sulfur Oxides (Health Criteria). EPA website. https://www.epa.gov/isa/integrated-science-assessment-isa-sulfur-oxides-health-criteria. Published September 2008. Accessed June 18, 2018.
15. ↵
    1. US Environmental Protection Agency

    Integrated Science Assessment for Oxides of Nitrogen (Health Criteria). EPA website. https://www.epa.gov/isa/integrated-science-assessment-isa-nitrogen-dioxide-health-criteria. Published July 2008. Accessed June 18, 2018.
16. ↵
    1. Chauhan AJ,
    2. Inskip HM,
    3. Linaker CH, et al.

    Personal exposure to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and the severity of virus-induced asthma in children. Lancet. 2003;361(9373):1939-1944.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
17. ↵
    1. Suarez AE,
    2. Ondov JM

    Ambient aerosol concentrations of elements resolved by size and by source: contributions of some cytokine-active metals from coal-and oil-fired power plants. Energy & Fuels. 2002;16(3):562-568.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
18. ↵
    2002-4 NC Sess Laws 72-81 (2002).
19. ↵
    1. Kravchenko J,
    2. Akushevich I,
    3. Abernethy AP,
    4. Holman S,
    5. Ross WG Jr.,
    6. Lyerly HK

    Long-term dynamics of death rates of emphysema, asthma, and pneumonia and improving air quality. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2014;9:613-627.

    OpenUrl
20. ↵
    1. Kravchenko J

    Long-term dynamics of respiratory, cardio- and cerebrovascular death rates among older adults and improving air quality. Presentation at: The Gerontological Society of America's 68th Annual Scientific Meeting; June, 2015; Orlando, FL.
21. ↵
    1. Li YR,
    2. Gibson JM

    Health and air quality benefits of policies to reduce coal-fired power plant emissions: a case study in North Carolina. Environ Sci Technol. 2014;48(17):10019-10027.

    OpenUrl
22. ↵
    1. US Environmental Protection Agency

    The benefits and costs of the Clean Air Act 1990 to 2010: EPA report to Congress. Washington, DC: EPA; 2010. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-07/documents/fullrept.pdf. Accessed June 21, 2018.
23. ↵
    Southeast Coal Ash. Map of coal ash storage sites. http://www.southeastcoalash.org; Table of Power plants. http://www.southeastcoalash.org/table-of-power-plants/; Southeast Coal Ash website. Accessed June 18, 2018.
24. ↵
    1. Zierold KM,
    2. Sears CG

    : Community views about the health and exposure of children living near a coal ash storage site. J Community Health. 2015;40(2):357-363.

    OpenUrl
25. ↵
    1. LeGalley E,
    2. Krekeler MP

    A mineralogical and geochemical investigation of street sediment near a coal-fired power plant in Hamilton, Ohio: an example of complex pollution and cause for community health concerns. Environ Pullut. 2013;176:26-35.

    OpenUrl
26. 1. Žibret G,
    2. Van Tonder D,
    3. Žibret L

    Metal content in street dust as a reflection of atmospheric dust emissions from coal power plants, metal smelters, and traffic. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2013;20(7):4455-4468.

    OpenUrl
27. ↵
    1. Swaine DJ

    Why trace elements are important. Fuel Processing Technology. 2000;65:21-33.

    OpenUrl
28. ↵
    1. Izquierdo M,
    2. Querol X

    Leaching behaviour of elements from coal combustion fly ash: an overview. International Journal of Coal Geology. 2012;94:54-66.

    OpenUrlGeoRef
29. ↵
    1. Ruhl L,
    2. Vengosh A,
    3. Dwyer GS, et al.

    Survey of the potential environmental and health impacts in the immediate aftermath of the coal ash spill in Kingston, Tennessee. Environ Sci Technol. 2009;43(16):6326-6333.

    OpenUrlPubMed
30. ↵
    1. Ruhl L,
    2. Vengosh A,
    3. Dwyer GS, et al.

    The impact of coal combustion residue effluent on water resources: a North Carolina example. Environ Sci Technol. 2012;46(21):12226-12233.

    OpenUrlPubMed
31. ↵
    1. National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements

    NCRP Report No. 92, Public Radiation Exposure from Nuclear Power Generation in the United States. Bethesda, MD: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements; 1987.
32. ↵
    1. Christensen T,
    2. Fuglestvedt J,
    3. Benestad C, et al.

    Chemical and radiological risk factors associated with waste from energy production. Sci Total Environ. 1992;114:87-97.

    OpenUrlPubMed
33. ↵
    1. Chizhikov V,
    2. Chikina S,
    3. Gasparian A, et al.

    Molecular follow-up of preneoplastic lesions in bronchial epithelium of former Chernobyl clean-up workers. Oncogene. 2002;21(15):2398-2405.

    OpenUrlPubMed
34. ↵
    1. Costa DL,
    2. Dreher KL

    Bioavailable transition metals in particulate matter mediate cardiopulmonary injury in healthy and compromised animal models. Environ Health Perspect. 1997;105(Suppl 5): 1053-1060.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
35. ↵
    1. Bencko V,
    2. Symon K,
    3. Stalnik L,
    4. Bátora J,
    5. Vanco E,
    6. Svandová E

    Rate of malignant tumor mortality among coal burning power plant workers occupationally exposed to arsenic. J Hyg Epidemiol Microbiol Immunol. 1979;24(3):278-284.

    OpenUrl
36. ↵
    1. Celik M,
    2. Donbak L,
    3. Unal F,
    4. Yüzbasıoglu D,
    5. Aksoy H,
    6. Yılmaz S

    Cytogenetic damage in workers from a coal-fired power plant. Mutat Res. 2007;627(2):158-163.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
37. ↵
    1. Karavuş M,
    2. Aker A,
    3. Cebeci D,
    4. Taşdemir M,
    5. Bayram N,
    6. Çali Ş

    Respiratory complaints and spirometric parameters of the villagers living around the Seyitomer coal-fired thermal power plant in Kütahya, Turkey. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2002;52(3):214-220.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
38. ↵
    1. Tang D,
    2. Li T-y,
    3. Liu JJ, et al.

    Effects of prenatal exposure to coal-burning pollutants on children's development in China. Environ Health Perspect. 2008;116(5):674-679.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
39. ↵
    1. García-Pérez J,
    2. Pollán M,
    3. Boldo E, et al.

    Mortality due to lung, laryngeal and bladder cancer in towns lying in the vicinity of combustion installations. Sci Total Environ. 2009;407(8):2593-2602.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
40. ↵
    1. Šrám RJ,
    2. Binková B,
    3. Dejmek J,
    4. Bobak M

    Ambient air pollution and pregnancy outcomes: a review of the literature. Environ Helath Perspect. 2005;113(4):375-382.

    OpenUrl
41. ↵
    1. Gohlke JM,
    2. Thomas R,
    3. Woodward A, et al.

    Estimating the global public health implications of electricity and coal consumption. Environ Health Perspect. 2011;119(6):821-826.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
42. ↵
    1. Berhane K,
    2. Zhang Y,
    3. Salam MT, et al.

    Longitudinal effects of air pollution on exhaled nitric oxide: the Children's Health Study. Occup Environ Med. 2014;71(7):507-513.

    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
43. ↵
    1. Braun JM,
    2. Kahn RS,
    3. Froehlich T,
    4. Auinger P,
    5. Lanphear BP

    Exposures to environmental toxicants and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in US children. Environ Health Perspect. 2006;114(12):1904-1909.

    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
44. ↵
    1. Block ML,
    2. Calderón-Garcidueñas L

    Air pollution: mechanisms of neuroinflammation and CNS disease. Trends Neurosci. 2009;32(9):506-516.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
45. ↵
    1. Goldizen FC,
    2. Sly PD,
    3. Knibbs LD

    : Respiratory effects of air pollution on children. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2016;51(1):94-108.

    OpenUrl
46. ↵
    1. Levy JI,
    2. Spengler JD

    Modeling the benefits of power plant emission controls in Massachusetts. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 2002;52(1):5-18.

    OpenUrlPubMed
47. ↵
    1. Markandya A,
    2. Wilkinson P

    Electricity generation and health. Lancet. 2007;370(9591):979-990.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
48. ↵
    1. Mayfield DB,
    2. Lewis AS

    Environmental review of coal ash as a resource for rare earth and strategic elements. Presentation at: Proceedings of the 2013 World of Coal Ash (WOCA) Conference; April, 2013; Lexington, KY.
49. ↵
    1. Huddleston GM III.,
    2. Webb KW,
    3. Smith HH,
    4. Spacil MM

    Environmental Risk Assessments of Coal Ash Impoundments. Presentation at: 2017 World of Coal Ash (WOCA) Conference; May, 2017; Lexington, KY.
50. ↵
    Coal Ash Management Act of 2014. NC Sess Laws, SB 729 (2014).
51. ↵
    1. Levy JI,
    2. Greco SL,
    3. Spengler JD

    The importance of population susceptibility for air pollution risk assessment: a case study of power plants near Washington, DC. Environ Health Perspect. 2002;110(12):1253-1260.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
52. ↵
    1. Levy JI,
    2. Spengler JD,
    3. Hlinka D,
    4. Sullivan D,
    5. Moon D

    Using CALPUFF to evaluate the impacts of power plant emissions in Illinois: model sensitivity and implications. Atmospheric Environment. 2002;36(6):1063-1075.

    OpenUrl
53. ↵
    1. Levy JI,
    2. Wilson AM,
    3. Evans JS,
    4. Spengler JD

    Estimation of primary and secondary particulate matter intake fractions for power plants in Georgia. Environ Sci Technol. 2003;37(24):5528-5536.

    OpenUrlPubMed
54. ↵
    1. Carignan A,
    2. Culley M,
    3. Dinkins L, et al.

    University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Environmental Justice Concerns Associated with Potential Coal Ash Sites in North Carolina. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; 2016. https://ie.unc.edu/files/2017/01/ENEC698-Coal-Ash-Relocation-pits-Final-Paper.pdf. Accessed June 18, 2018.
55. ↵
    1. Harkness JS,
    2. Sulkin B,
    3. Vengosh A

    Evidence for coal ash ponds leaking in the southeastern United States. Environ Sci Technol. 2016;50(12):6583-6592.

    OpenUrl
56. ↵
    1. George A,
    2. Bozentka M,
    3. Brickner R, et al.

    University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Environmental Injustice and Well Water Contamination in North Carolina. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; 2017. https://ie.unc.edu/files/2017/12/Fall2017_ENEC698_EJ_Well_Water_Final_Report.pdf. Accessed June 19, 2018.
57. ↵
    1. Munawer ME

    Human health and environmental impacts of coal combustion and post-combustion wastes. Journal of Sustainable Mining. 2018;17(2):87-96.

    OpenUrl
58. ↵
    1. Zeger SL,
    2. Dominici F,
    3. McDermott A,
    4. Samet JM

    Mortality in the Medicare population and chronic exposure to fine particulate air pollution in urban centers (2000–2005). Environ Health Perspect. 2008;116(12):1614-1619.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
59. 1. Eftim SE,
    2. Samet JM,
    3. Janes H,
    4. McDermott A,
    5. Dominici F

    Fine particulate matter and mortality: a comparison of the six cities and American Cancer Society cohorts with a medicare cohort. Epidemiology. 2008;19(2):209-216.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
60. ↵
    1. Laden F,
    2. Schwartz J,
    3. Speizer FE,
    4. Dockery DW

    Reduction in fine particulate air pollution and mortality extended follow-up of the Harvard six cities study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006;173(6):667-672.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
61. ↵
    1. Hermann RP,
    2. Divita F,
    3. Lanier JO

    Predicting premature mortality from new power plant development in Virginia. Arch Environ Health. 2004;59(10):529-535.

    OpenUrlPubMed
62. ↵
    1. McConnell R,
    2. Berhane K,
    3. Gilliland F, et al.

    Prospective study of air pollution and bronchitic symptoms in children with asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;168(7):790-797.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
63. ↵
    1. Chen LH,
    2. Knutsen SF,
    3. Shavlik D, et al.

    The association between fatal coronary heart disease and ambient particulate air pollution: are females at greater risk? Environ Health Perspect. 2005;113(12):1723-1729.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
64. ↵
    1. Chen L,
    2. Yang W,
    3. Jennison BL,
    4. Goodrich A,
    5. Omaye ST

    Air pollution and birth weight in northern Nevada, 1991-1999. Inhal Toxicol. 2002;14(2):141-157.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
65. ↵
    1. Woodruff TJ,
    2. Darrow LA,
    3. Parker JD

    : Air pollution and postneonatal infant mortality in the United States, 1999–2002. Environ Health Perspect. 2008;116(1):110-115.

    OpenUrlPubMedWeb of Science
66. 1. Pope CA III.,
    2. Burnett RT,
    3. Thun MJ, et al.

    Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. JAMA. 2002;287(9):1132-1141.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
67. 1. O'Neill MS,
    2. Veves A,
    3. Zanobetti A, et al.

    Diabetes enhances vulnerability to particulate air pollution–associated impairment in vascular reactivity and endothelial function. Circulation. 2005;111(22):2913-2920.

    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text